The first scientific discovery made with instruments orbiting in space was the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts, discovered by Explorer 1 in 1958. Subsequent space missions investigated Earth’s magnetosphere, the surrounding region of space in which the planet’s magnetic field exerts a controlling effect (see Earth: The magnetic field and magnetosphere). Of particular and ongoing interest has been the interaction of the flux of charged particles emitted by the Sun, called the solar wind, with the magnetosphere. Early space science investigations showed, for example, that luminous atmospheric displays known as auroras are the result of this interaction, and scientists came to understand that the magnetosphere is an extremely complex phenomenon.

The focus of inquiry in space physics was later extended to understanding the characteristics of the Sun, both as an average star and as the primary source of energy for the rest of the solar system, and to exploring space between the Sun and Earth and other planets (see interplanetary medium). The magnetospheres of other planets, particularly Jupiter with its strong magnetic field, also came under study. Scientists sought a better understanding of the internal dynamics and overall behaviour of the Sun, the underlying causes of variations in solar activity, and the way in which those variations propagate through space and ultimately affect Earth’s magnetosphere and upper atmosphere. The concept of space weather was advanced to describe the changing conditions in the Sun-Earth region of the solar system. Variations in space weather can cause geomagnetic storms that interfere with the operation of satellites and even systems on the ground such as power grids.

To carry out the investigations required for addressing these scientific questions, the United States, Europe, the Soviet Union, and Japan developed a variety of space missions, often in a coordinated fashion. In the United States, early studies of the Sun were undertaken by a series of Orbiting Solar Observatory satellites (launched 1962–75) and the astronaut crews of the Skylab space station in 1973–74, using that facility’s Apollo Telescope Mount. These were followed by the Solar Maximum Mission satellite (launched 1980). ESA developed the Ulysses mission (1990) to explore the Sun’s polar regions. Solar-terrestrial interactions were the focus of many of the Explorer series of spacecraft (1958–75) and the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory satellites (1964–69).

In the 1980s NASA, ESA, and Japan’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science undertook a cooperative venture to develop a comprehensive series of space missions, named the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, that would be aimed at full investigation of the Sun-Earth connection. This program was responsible for the U.S. Wind (1994) and Polar (1996) spacecraft, the European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO; 1995) and Cluster (2000) missions, and the Japanese Geotail satellite (1992).

Among many other missions, NASA has launched a number of satellites, including Thermosphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED, 2001); the Japanese-U.S.-U.K. collaboration Hinode (2006); and Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO, 2006), part of its Solar Terrestrial Probes program. The Solar Dynamics Observatory (2010); the twin Van Allen Probes (2012); and the Parker Solar Probe (2018), which made the closest flybys of the Sun, were part of another NASA program called Living with a Star. A two-satellite European/Chinese mission called Double Star (2003–04) studied the impact of the Sun on Earth’s environment.